CHARACTERISTICS

A Typology of the Gambler. Joseph A. Scimecca. International Journal of Contemporary Sociology, Vol. 8(1), p56-71, Jan. 1971. This is one of the earlier attempts to systematically classify gamblers based on a range of behavioral and attitudinal characteristics, including the motivation for gambling, the degree of ego involvement, the amount of skill involved, the degree of superstition, and societal reaction. Based on these characteristics, Scimecca identifies seven types of gamblers: the professional gambler, the percentage gambler, the cheater, the compulsive gambler, the economic gambler, the thrill gambler, and the functional gambler. While others have tackled this subject since, Scimecca provides a thoughtful conceptual framework which is still relevant more than 25 years after publication.

Gambling in America. Commission on the Review of the National Policy Toward Gambling. U.S. Government Printing Office, Oct. 15, 1976. The Commission was created by Congress in 1970 to study all aspects of gambling as it exists in America and to develop recommendations for the States to follow when establishing their own policies. The study found that 67 percent of the American populace gamble. Additionally, gambling is an activity approved of by 80 percent of Americans. The Commission concluded that gambling policy is a matter best left to the individual states and that Federal regulation should only get involved in cases of large-scale illegal activities, organized crime, or when one State's policy is inflicted on another.

Compulsive Gamblers. David Oldman. The Sociological Review, Vol. 26, p349-371, 1978. This article questions the idea of compulsion as a means of theorizing gambling activities of gamblers. Often "lay" accounts referencing "compulsion" in their theories of problem gamblers are made by people having little or no experience with gambling. The "expert" accounts of compulsion, materializing in therapeutic literature, have been based on the self-reports of gambling patients. If compulsion is used to describe gamblers that have reached the end of the road, it is easier to classify them as objects to be treated. An implication of having a defect makes a good legal defense for those on trial for embezzlement or theft because of gambling debts. It also serves a purpose in regard to ideology.

Pathological Gambling: Roots, Phases, and Treatment. Henry R. Lesieur and Robert L. Custer. Annals, AAPSS, 474, p146-156, July 1984. This article traces the roots, causes and phases of pathological gambling. According to 1974 surveys by the gambling commission, 61 percent of the United States populace gambles. This same survey estimated that there are 1.1 million "probable compulsive gamblers" in the U.S. With the establishment of Gamblers Anonymous in 1957, society's view of those who gambled beyond their means changed from a moral issue to a medical/illness issue. Pathological gamblers were found to exhibit certain physiological traits, such as high energy levels, hyperactivity and high tolerance of stress. The sociological view that pathological gamblers have positive rewards convincing them of the benefits of gambling was supported with evidence of a big win early in the career of the pathological gambler.

Compulsive Gambling and the Medicalization of Deviance. John Rosecrance. Social Problems, Vol. 32(3), p275-284, Feb. 1985. This article traces the history of societal views on gambling and the factors that led to its medicalization, which refers to the process of determining that the behaviors present are deemed a disease and require social intervention or therapy. Consistent with his other writings, Rosecrance questions the acceptance of the medical model in explaining gambling behavior and deems it more of a social accomplishment than a scientific achievement.

"The Next Best Thing:" A Study of Problem Gambling. John Rosecrance. The International Journal of the Addictions, 20(11&12), p1727-1739, 1985-86. The article questions the traditional model of the problem gambler because it is based on the group of gamblers seeking treatment and as such it overlooks the vast majority of gamblers. The increase in problem gambling has been explained by the proximity of facilities, ease of entry and social acceptance. In addition to these factors, Rosecrance suggests that the increase in gambling by the white middle class should also be considered in profiling the problem gambler. Due to their inexperience with gambling and access to lines of credit, large debts can accrue leading the troubled gamblers to repayment problems. The new model of problem gambling suggests that total abstinence is not necessary in regaining control over gambling and treatment programs should be varied and geared to meet diverse needs. The commonality amongst problem gamblers is a large loss of money, which is usually preceded by a big "win."

Why Regular Gamblers Don't Quit: A Sociological Perspective. John Rosecrance. Sociological Perspectives, Vol. 29(3), p357-378, July 1986. A two-year field study was conducted through observation of off-track horse race gamblers, sports bettors, and poker players. The results of the data suggest that continued gambling, despite losses, can be explained by the binding social aspects of the activity. The rewards of the social connection were more important than the losses incurred. Changes in the gamblers lives such as divorce, separation or retirement led to increased gambling activity.

Attributions and the Origins of Problem Gambling. John Rosecrance. The Sociological Quarterly, Vol. 27(4), p464-477, 1986. A one-year study of self-acknowledged horse-players who regularly frequent Harrah's Race Book in Lake Tahoe was conducted. The findings showed that a bad beat (devastating loss) usually led to problem gambling, not a big win as has been previously shown. It also concluded that problem gambling is reversible and considerable help in this regard can be attained from fellow gamblers.

Gambling Without Guilt: The Legitimization of an American Pastime. John Rosecrance. Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, Pacific Grove, CA, 1988. This book covers the history and extent of gambling in America. Rosecrance combines his personal experience with gambling (30 years) and existing theory on compulsive gambling to arrive at his definition of the problem gambler. He suggests that problem (or inappropriate) gambling is more suitably attributed to the lack of skill/knowledge in gambling, combined with bad finance management, than to any compulsive behavior. As middle class America becomes more adept at gambling and its contingencies through increased exposure, they will increasingly avoid excessive losses and become responsible gamblers.

The South Oaks Gambling Screen SOGS: A New Instrument for the Identification of Pathological Gamblers. Henry Lesieur and Sheila Blume. Am J Psychiatry 144:9, p1184-1188, Sept. 1987. A detailed description of the SOGS and how it was developed. The SOGS appears to be a valid, reliable screening instrument for the rapid screening of alcoholic, drug dependent and other patients for pathological gambling. Previous studies of substance-abusing inpatients had shown clear connections between various forms of substance abuse and the presence of pathological gambling. Other studies found a connection between prison populations and pathological gambling.

New Jersey Low Income and Minority Resident Lottery Participation. Allison Jackson Associates. New Jersey Division of State Lottery, July, 1988. This research study is based on extensive analysis of secondary data, six focus group interview sessions with low income minority and nonminority residents in three regions throughout New Jersey, point-of-purchase interviews with 1,797 lottery players at 50 lottery outlet locations throughout the state, and a scientific telephone survey of 1,808 New Jersey residents age 18 and over. This survey was conducted to achieve a better understanding of the dynamics of lottery play in New Jersey and the lottery's impact on minorities and low income residents. The study concluded that minorities and low income residents do not differ from other lottery players in terms of their overall play or their attitudes toward the lottery. However, low income players spend a larger proportion of their household income on the lottery than do other players, and blacks spend more on a weekly basis than do whites or Hispanics. There is strong support for the lottery and lottery advertising by New Jersey residents.

Going on Tilt: Frequent Poker Players and Control. Basil R. Browne. Journal of Gambling Behavior, Vol.5(1), p3-21, Spring 1989. "This paper is based on three years of participant observation in California's legal commercial card parlors and one year observation at an open meeting of Gamblers Anonymous (G.A.). The grounded concept, tilt, is advanced to describe the process of losing control in the gambling situation. Although some problem gamblers and most compulsive gamblers (members of G.A.) did not use this term, they nonetheless, described the same process. Tilt is defined and broken down into its various components. Paths to, or ways of going on tilt and the means used to avoid tilt are spelt out. Hothschild's concept, emotion work, is used to describe how successful professionals stay off tilt. The major contention of the paper is that all gamblers experience tilt, and their reactions to tilt and to tilt-inducing situations partly determine whether or not gambling becomes a major problem. The implications of tilt are also discussed.

An Exploratory Study of Lottery Playing, Gambling Addiction and Links to Compulsive Consumption. Alvin Burns, Peter Gillett, Marc Rubinstein and James Gentry. Advances in Consumer Research, Vol.17, 1990. A telephone questionnaire was administered to 235 respondents who were selected using systematic sampling with a random starting point from an Orlando telephone book. The study found that lottery players exhibited more heavy shopping and browsing than nonplayers. Lottery players also tended to have lower incomes and be less educated than nonplayers. However, they were also younger than nonplayers. Lottery players were found to view their playing as socially acceptable risk-taking that provides them with a means of fantasizing sudden wealth and escape from their current status. Players were found to be stimulated by situational factors like a previous lottery win or a purchase of some lottery book/aid, and are also likely to increase their purchases when the jackpot grows in size.

Characteristics of Pathological Gamblers Identified Among Patients on a Psychiatric Admissions Service. Henry R. Lesieur and Sheila B. Blume. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, p1009-1012, Sept. 1990. Psychiatric patients were found to have a much higher incidence of pathological gambling than the general population. A significant number also came from families with a history of problem gambling.

Adult Survey of Minnesota Gambling Behavior: A Benchmark, 1990. Laundergan, Schaefer, Eckhoff and Pirie. Minnesota Department of Human Services, November, 1990. A sample of 1251 respondents from nine Minnesota counties were surveyed shortly after the start of the Minnesota Lottery scratch games but prior to the start of on-line (numbers) games. Males, non-whites and respondents under the age of 34 were all overrepresented among problem gamblers and potential and probable pathological gamblers based on a modified version of the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS-M). Overall 0.9 percent of the respondents were identified as probable pathological gamblers (SOGS score of 5 or more), 0.6 percent as potential pathological gamblers (SOGS score of 3 or 4) and 7 percent as problem gamblers (SOGS score of 1 or 2). 37 percent were identified as non-bettors and 54.6 percent as gamblers with no problem.

Pathological Gambling. Richard J. Rosenthal. Psychiatric Annals 22:2, p72-78, Feb. 1992. Pathological gambling is very similar in definition and symptoms to substance dependence. This article discusses the evolution of the DSM-IV criteria for diagnosing pathological gamblers. Various studies of pathological gamblers in treatment reveal that approximately 50 percent have histories of alcohol or drug abuse. In males, the disorder typically begins in adolescence. Females typically start gambling later in life, are more apt to be depressed, and gamble as a means of escaping the depression. It is not unusual for male gamblers to have a history of 20 to 30 years when they seek treatment, compared with three years for females.

Review of Research on Pathological Gambling. John B. Murray. Psychological Reports, 72, p791-810, 1993. A review of psychological studies of gambling behavior, the article concluded that a personality profile distinguishing pathological from merely social gamblers has not been discovered. The symptoms of pathological gambling and alcoholism often appear in the same people and often have been treated in similar programs. Although pathological gambling differs from other drug abuse problems in that it is "drugless," gamblers' descriptions of sensations experienced appear similar to those using drugs and alcohol. Gamblers Anonymous, like Alcoholic Anonymous, has proven effective therapeutically for pathological gamblers both nationally and internationally.

The Pull of the Fruit Machine: A Sociological Typology of Young Players. Sue Fisher. The Editorial Board of the Sociological Review, p446-475, 1993. A study of why young people gamble on the "fruit machines," in the United Kingdom. These slot machines are legally available to children at arcades, cafes, fish and chip shops and (illegally) at pubs. The only restrictions are voluntary codes at certain premises prohibiting access to those under sixteen. Children and young people account for approximately 25 percent of all new members of Gamblers Anonymous in the United Kingdom. Primary reasons for gambling include: ego enhancement, solving the technical problems presented by the machine, action, opportunity for gender exploration and temporary escape.

Addictive Behavior: An Informal Clinical View. Julian I. Taber. In Gambling Behavior & Problem Gambling. Institute for the Study of Gambling and Commercial Gaming, University of Nevada, Reno. 1993. The author, a clinical psychologist, draws conclusions from his years of experience treating people with addictive disorders. He describes his view of the mind of the chronic addict, suggests guidelines for effective treatment, and expounds on his view that gambling and other addictions are all forms of a single, underlying disorder he calls "Addictive Response Syndrome. (ARS)" ARS, in Taber's view, "always arises from some personal vulnerability acquired before the development of any specific addiction." Treating the addiction without changing the patient's basic personality structure, he argues, is an invitation to relapse.

Impulse Control Disorders and Attention Deficit Disorder in Pathological Gamblers. Sheila M. Specker, Gregory A. Carlson, Gary A. Christenson and Michael Marcotte. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry, Vol. 7(4), p175-179, 1995. This study found significantly higher rates of other impulse control disorders and attention deficit disorder in compulsive gamblers than in a control group of "normal" individuals. 35 percent of the compulsive gamblers were found to have an impulse control disorder with attention deficit disorder found in 20 percent. Of particular interest were high rates of compulsive buying and compulsive sexual behavior among the compulsive gamblers.

Comparing the Pathological and Recreational Gambler: An Exploratory Study. Gary Davis and Dennis Brissett. Minnesota Department of Human Services, Dec. 1995. This study explores the possible personality and life style differences between pathological gamblers and recreational gamblers. No differences were found between the pathological and recreational gamblers on demographic variables including gender, age, marital status and level of education. Although similar in the early stage of their gambling careers, pathological gamblers were very different from recreational gamblers in the latter stage of their gambling careers (when gambling was at its worst) with respect to the effects of gambling on their lives and their reasons for gambling. When their gambling was at its worst, pathological gamblers gambled to make money, to escape, to be in control of life, to feel alive and to relieve depression. Recreational gamblers reported gambling for fun, recreation and novelty. Personality tests showed the pathological gambler to be more unconventional and non-conforming.

Gender, Gambling and Problem Gambling. Joseph Hraba and Gang Lee. Journal of Gambling Studies, Vol. 12(1), p83-101, Spring, 1996. This article is based on data from a 1989 Iowa survey. The results of the survey showed female gambling behavior was lower than that of males due to their having a narrower scope of gambling behavior. There were no significant differences between genders in frequency of play, amount wagered or time spent gambling. The genders were similar on problem gambling but differed significantly on predictors of problem gambling. Alcohol was a predominate predictor for males and estrangement from a conventional lifestyle and integration into a social world of gambling explained problem gambling for females.

Psychopathology in Pathological Gamblers Seeking Treatment: Gender Comparisons. Sheila M. Specker, Gregory A. Carlson, Karen M. Edmonson, Paula E. Johnson and Michael Marcotte. Journal of Gambling Studies, Vol. 12(1), p67-81, Spring, 1996. This report found high rates of Axis I psychopathology, such as depression and substance abuse/dependency, in pathological gamblers as compared to controls. Rates of affective and substance use disorders were equally high in men and women. Axis II personality disorders, such as paranoia or avoidant behaviors, were not frequent and did not differ significantly from controls. Significant rates of sexual/physical abuse were found. Pathological gambling is probably not a homogeneous disorder. Persons with psychiatric and substance abuse disorders may be at higher risk to develop pathological gambling.

Potential and Probable Pathological Gamblers: Where Do the Differences Lie? Dominique Dube', Mark H. Freeston and Robert Ladouceur. Journal of Gambling Studies, Vol. 12(4), p419-430, Winter, 1996. The SOGS test was given to 1,471 college students in Quebec. The results showed a pathological gambling rate of 2.8 percent overall, with a much higher percentage for males (5.7 percent) than females (0.6 percent). The analysis also differentiated the probable from potential pathological gamblers in Illegal Behaviors, Heavy Gambling, Parentally Modeled/Less Impulsive and Worry factors.

Video Lottery Gambling: Effects on Pathological Gamblers Seeking Treatment in South Dakota. Timothy Morgan, Lial Kofoed, Jerry Buchkoski and Robert D. Carr. Journal of Gambling Studies, Vol. 12(4), p451-460, Winter, 1996. Fifty-eight pathological gamblers receiving treatment for addictive illness in two South Dakota hospitals were grouped by gambling activities. The results showed that video lottery was the predominant gambling activity for this group, suggesting an association of video lottery stimuli and severity of addiction.

Understanding the Means and Objects of Addiction: Technology, the Internet and Gambling. Howard J. Shaffer. Journal of Gambling Studies, Vol. 12(4), p461-469, Winter, 1996. This article describes how using new computer technology and the Internet for gambling can represent both the means and object of addiction. Through exploring the concept of addiction, its social setting, neurochemistry and gaming characteristics, this article suggests that addiction is the result of shifts in subjective experience and that new technology and the Internet can provide relatively reliable and potent contemporary vehicles for changing emotional states.

Altered Dopamine Function in Pathological Gambling. C. Bergh, T. Eklund, P. Sodersten & C. Nordin. Psychological Medicine, Vol. 27, p473-475, 1997. Swedish researchers examined the dopamine levels of cerebral spinal fluids (CSF) in ten pathological gamblers compared with seven controls. The findings suggest that changes in dopamine levels play a role in the psychopathology of pathological gambling. Several questions remain to be answered: do dopamine level changes result from the influence of pathological gambling, are some people vulnerable to gambling as a result of a deficient dopamine level, or are both of these possibilities associated with a third independent factor?

Pathological Gambling and Criminal Behavior. Dr. Gerhard Meyer. 10th International Conference on Gambling and Risk-Taking, Montreal. University of Bremen, Germany. June 4, 1997. This article explores the link between pathological gambling and criminal activity. The author points out that the commission of a crime by a compulsive gambler does not necessarily mean that gambling was the cause of the criminal activity. In almost half of the cases studied, criminal activity preceded the onset of problem gambling. The research concluded that while pathological gambling behavior is an important component of criminal activities, other variables such as personality and social attachment also influence the level of criminal behavior.

Profiling the Pathological Gambler. Steve Ranney. Paradigm, p12-13, Winter, 1997. A summary of the study conducted by the Illinois Institute for Addiction Recovery of pathological gamblers within the treatment setting. The results of a cross section of 62 medical records selected randomly over a three-year period showed a high occurrence of substance dependence (73 percent) and depression (70 percent). Fifty-two percent reported a family history of addiction and nearly half of the patients (47 percent) had received prior treatment for various problems.

 

PREVALENCE

Refining Prevalence Estimates of Pathological Gambling. Rachel Volberg and Henry Steadman. Am J Psychiatry, p502-505, April, 1988. The SOGS testing of a sample of New York State residents, classified 2.8 percent of the sample as "problem gamblers" and 1.4 percent as "probable pathological gamblers." Based on these findings, it was estimated that between 230,000 and 486,400 of New York's 12.8 million adults can be classified as "problem gamblers" and an additional 89,600 to 269,800 as "probable pathological gamblers."

Pathological Gambling Prevalence in New Jerseyæ1990 Final Report. Phyllis Reilly and Frank Guida. New Jersey Department of Higher Education. Pathological gambling is first defined, and then a discussion of its origins is presented. The review of gambling literature continues with the personality and reasoning characteristics of pathological gamblers and the effects of pathological gambling on family members. Nine DSM-IV criteria were used for the first time as indicators of pathological gambling. The study classified 5.8 percent of its respondents as "problem gamblers," 1.9 percent as "potential pathological gamblers" and 1.2 percent as "probable pathological gamblers." These findings seem to indicate a lower incidence and prevalence of pathological gambling in New Jersey in 1990 in comparison to other states where surveys were taken.

A Study of Problem and Pathological Gambling Among the Citizens of Indiana Associated with Participation in the Indiana State Lottery. Indiana Department of Mental Health. Indianapolis. Nov. 1990. A survey of more than 1,000 Indiana residents found only one meeting the DSM-IV criteria for "probable pathological" gambling. The questions were directed entirely at lottery play and cannot be taken as a measure of overall pathological gambling in Indiana. This report also contains a review of the literature on pathological gambling through 1990.

"Minnesota Slots" An Observational Study of Pull Tab Gambling. James Schaefer and Mikal Aasved. Minnesota Department of Human Services, Nov. 1990. This study was undertaken to describe the incidence and prevalence of pull tab gambling in Minnesota and the gambling behaviors of its players. Study methods included participant observation, playing pull tabs and becoming acquainted with and interviewing as many players and dealers as possible. The investigators found that most pull tab players are occasional or light players who tend to lose their money. Heavy players win more often but they also lose more money. The youngest player was 2 years old, the oldest player 90, and the typical player in their mid-thirties. The more readily available pull tabs were, the more likely that they were played. Signs of compulsive gamblers were observed.

Comparison of 1985 and 1989 Minnesota Survey Findings on Gambling in Minnesota. J. Clark Laundergan and Karla F. Eckhoff. Department of Human Services, July, 1991. The comparison showed an increase in gambling activity during the five-year period. Playing the lottery (out of state; Minnesota's lottery began after this survey was taken) showed the largest increase (32 percent), followed by horse or dog race betting (20 percent). The results also indicate increased problems associated with gambling.

Compulsive Gambling. Henry R. Lesieur. Society p43-50, May/June, 1992. This article explores the costs of compulsive gambling to society and to individual gamblers. One study of Gamblers Anonymous members found that pathological gamblers are responsible for an estimated 1.3 billion dollars in insurance-related fraud per year. Children of pathological gamblers were more likely to have gambling problems. Studies of prisoners, alcohol and drug abusing inpatients, Veteran's Administration inpatients and Gamblers Anonymous members found that approximately two-thirds of non-incarcerated and 97 percent of incarcerated pathological gamblers admit engaging in illegal behavior to finance their gambling activities. Surveys indicate that 1 to 2 percent of the adult population are probably pathological gamblers and 2 to 3 percent are problem gamblers.

Gambling Involvement and Problem Gambling in Montana. Rachel A. Volberg. Montana Department of Corrections and Human Services, Sept. 31, 1992. The lifetime prevalence rate for problem gamblers was 2.3 percent and 1.3 percent for pathological gamblers. The current rates were 1.5 percent and 0.7 percent respectively. No significant differences in lifetime problem and probable pathological gamblers were found in terms of gender, however, they were significantly more likely to be under the age of 30 than the general population.

Incidence and Comparative Study of Compulsive Gambling Behaviors Between American Indian and Non-Indians Within and Near a Northern Plains Reservation. Darryl Zitzow. Indian Health Service, Bemidji, Minnesota Area Office, Oct. 30, 1992. This report is the result of three separate studies comparing gambling behaviors of American Indians to non-Indians. The studies included an adolescent school survey (ages 12-19), a random phone survey of adults (ages 20-86) and a systematic sampling of active adult gamblers at various gambling sites. The adolescent survey indicated higher rates of problematic gambling characteristics (14.8 percent) and pathological gambling characteristics (9.6 percent) for American Indian adolescents than the non-Indian rates of 10.5 percent and 5.6 percent respectively. The phone survey showed no significant differences overall between American Indian and non-Indian adults in regard to pathological gambling. However, the active gambling adult survey did show significantly higher rates of problematic (2.8 percent vs. 1.6 percent) and pathological gambling behaviors (9.1 percent vs. 4.6 percent) for American Indian adults than non-Indian adults.

Final Report: Prevalence Study -- Problem Gambling. Prepared for the Department of Finance, Province of New Brunswick by Baseline Market Research Ltd. Nov. 16, 1992. This study used the South Oaks Gambling Screen to estimate a "probable pathological" gambling rate of 2 percent (lifetime) and 1.37 percent (current). The report also summarizes overall gambling rates and preferences in the Province of New Brunswick.

Gambling and Problem Gambling in Washington State. Rachel A. Volberg. Washington State Lottery, Feb. 1993. This report presents the findings of a statewide survey conducted to assess gambling involvement and problem gambling in Washington State. The survey showed a 91 percent lifetime participation rate. Gamblers were found to most likely be white, over the age of 30, high school graduates and to have annual household incomes of more than $25,000. More than 5 percent of the adult population were classified as lifetime problem or probable pathological gamblers, and the combined "current" problem and pathological rating was 2.8 percent.

An Oklahoma State Lottery: Seducing the Less Fortunate? Sandeep Mangalmurti and Robert Allan Cooke. The Heartland Institute, Oct. 8, 1993. This article discusses the arguments for and against state-run lotteries, drawing its conclusions from secondary data. It selectively compiles statistics, taken from surveys conducted throughout the U.S., using findings that support its agenda. It contends that lotteries should be run by the private sector.

Adult Survey of Minnesota Problem Gambling Behavior; A Needs Assessment: Changes 1990 to 1994. Michael O. Emerson, J. Clark Laundergan and James M. Schaefer. Minnesota Department of Human Services, Sept. 1994. This report is an assessment of gambling prevalence in 1994 and the changes that occurred between 1990 and 1994. The percentage of the population gambling in the last month increased from 23 percent in 1990 to 41 percent in 1994. Also of significance is the increase from 1.6 percent in 1990 to 3.2 percent in 1994 for gamblers with "increasing negative consequences" (SOGS score of 3 or 4). There was no statistically significant change in the percentage of probable pathological gamblers. Common characteristics of problem and pathological gamblers were: Native American heritage, lower education, higher income, younger age, addictive behavior and depression, being single or divorced, being white and being male.

Prevalence of Pathological Gambling and Related Problems Among College Students in the Quebec Metropolitan Area. Robert Ladouceur, Dominique Dube¢ and Annie Bujold. Canadian Journal of Psychiartry, Vol. 39(5),p1-5, June 1994. The South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) was used to determine the prevalence of pathological gambling among 1,471 Quebec college students. This study found an overall prevalence rate of 2.8 percent, with the percentage of pathological gamblers higher among males (5.7 percent) than females (0.6 percent). Addictive behaviors like pathological gambling, alcohol and drug abuse, and eating disorders were found to be related.

Epidemiological Surveys of Pathological Gambling: Critique and Suggestions for Modification. Henry R. Lesieur. Journal of Gambling Studies, Vol. 10(4), p385-398, Winter 1994. This article discusses the inaccuracies presented in the epidemiological studies of problem and pathological gamblers due to fundamental flaws or biases. Lesieur speculates that these surveys seriously underestimate the extent of problem and pathological gambling, but concludes that there does not now exist a way to reliably estimate the number of pathological gamblers.

Gambling and Problem Gambling in Georgia. Rachel Volberg. Georgia Department of Human Resources, May 2, 1995. For the first time in Georgia, 1,550 adults were surveyed using the revised South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) to assess gambling and problem gambling in Georgia. Lifetime gambling participation in Georgia (74 percent) was found to be lower than in any other United States jurisdiction surveyed since 1990. The lifetime prevalence rate of problem and probable pathological gambling in Georgia was 4.4 percent, while the "current" prevalence rate of problem and probable pathological gambling was 2.3 percent of the adult population.

Gambling and Problem Gambling in Iowa: A Replication Survey. Rachel A. Volberg. Iowa Department of Human Services, July, 1995. The report presents the results of a 1995 follow-up survey to a 1989 statewide survey on problem gambling. The survey scored 1.9 percent of Iowa adults as "lifetime probable pathological gamblers" and 1.0 percent as "current probable pathological gamblers." The 1989 survey, by contrast, found 0.1 percent as "lifetime probable pathological gamblers." The study also found significant increases in gambling participation over the six year period. This is one of the few studies to include stock market investing as a type of gambling.

Problem Gambling Study: Final Report. Criterion Research Group. Manitoba Lotteries Corporation, Sept. 1995. Using the South Oaks Gambling Screen, researchers found no change in problem gambling in Manitoba from 1993 to 1995. While 92 percent of Manitoba adults had gambled in their lifetime, 1.9 percent were found to be "probable pathological gamblers" and 2.4 percent "problem gamblers" as defined by SOGS.

Gambling in Ontario: A Report from a General Population Survey on Gambling-Related Problems and Opinions. Jackie Ferris, Tania Stirpe and Anca Ialomiteanu. Addiction Research Foundation, Problem and Compulsive Gambling Project, Revised 1996. 1,030 Ontario adults were surveyed for this study, which found about 1 percent of the Ontario population with "serious gambling problems." Of particular interest in this study is the use of three different measures of gambling problems: the South Oaks Gambling Screen, the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV), and the "Life Areas Problem Measure." All agreed on the 1 percent problem level.

The Diceman Cometh: Will Gambling Be a Bad Bet For Your Town? Ronald Reno. Policy Review, p40-45, March/April, 1996. This article highlights several individual cases of compulsive gambling. It also attempts to link legalized gambling and criminal activity, citing the following statistics: 1) three years after the arrival of casinos, Atlantic City rose from fiftieth to first in the nation among cities in per capita crime; 2) Nevada continually ranks near the top in crime per capita, and; 3) within five years of permitting limited stakes casinos in Deadwood, South Dakota, serious crimes jumped 93 percent. Nationwide, it is estimated that about 10 million Americans have a gambling habit that is out of control. According to the National Council on Problem Gambling, there are fewer than 100 treatment programs nationwide for pathological gamblers, as compared with some 13,000 such programs for alcoholism and other substance-abuse problems. Gamblers Anonymous has added four hundred new chapters in the United States in the last five years.

The Impact of the Windsor Casino on Adult Gambling in the City of Windsor. Richard Govoni and G. Ron Frisch. The Problem Gambling Research Group of the Psychology Department at the University of Windsor, May 23, 1996. This report is Phase II of a multi-year project to assess the impact of the Windsor Casino on its community. Phase I (pre-casino) and Phase II (post-casino) used the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) as the basis for measuring recent and lifetime gambling behaviors. A comparison of survey responses of people before and one year after the casino opened showed no statistically significant differences in either Problem or Pathological gambling levels. The casino approval rate increased from 54.2 percent of the population to 65.1 percent one year after the opening, with the disapproval rate decreasing from 30.2 percent to 18.6 percent. The average per capita spending increased from $549 to $599 after the casino opened. Increases in yearly expenditure were not evenly distributed across the sample; the greatest increases were in the highest quartile of expenditure.

Prevalence Studies of Problem Gambling in the United States. Rachel A. Volberg. Journal of Gambling Studies, Vol.12(2), p111-128, Summer 1996. This article summarizes the results of the prevalence studies that have been completed in the United States since 1980. The surveys indicate that problem and probable pathological gamblers are more likely to be male, under the age of 30, non-Caucasian and unmarried than the general population. They are also less likely to have completed high school and more likely to have started gambling at a significantly younger age. Volberg concludes that the SOGS is outdated and suggests that a variety of methods should be used in future research.

The Prevalence of Pathological Gambling in Canada. Robert Ladouceur. Journal of Gambling Studies, Vol.12(2), p129-142, Summer 1996. This article reviews the gambling prevalence studies that have been conducted in Canada. The prevalence rates of pathological gamblers range from 0.8 percent to 1.7 percent in Canadian studies, which are similar to prevalence rates of pathological gamblers in the United States. The author associates increases in the prevalence rates with the increases in gambling activities and recommends an investment in research and gambling treatment.

New Mexico Survey of Gambling Behavior - 1996. New Mexico Department of Health, 1996. A total of 1,305 persons were surveyed resulting in 1,279 completed surveys. To assess the severity of problems relating to gambling activity, the indicators from the DSM-IV classification were grouped into categories. The results of the survey showed that an estimated 66 percent of adult New Mexicans have engaged in some form of gambling in the last year. Casino gambling, lotteries and slot/video machines were the most commonly reported gambling activities. Of persons who gambled in the past year, 5 percent reported serious problems related to gambling and 17 percent reported low/moderate gambling problems. The results also indicated a strong association between gambling behavior under age 21 and the development of serious gambling problems.

Gambling and Problem Gambling in New York: A 10-Year Replication Survey, 1986 to 1996. Rachel A. Volberg. New York Council on Problem Gambling, July, 1996. Gambling participation rose to 90 percent in the 1996 survey, up from 84 percent of the participants in the 1986 survey. In New York in 1996, 4.7 percent of the respondents scored as lifetime problem gamblers and 2.6 percent scored as lifetime probable pathological gamblers, compared with 1986 percentages of 2.8 and 1.4 respectively. The 1996 survey showed 2.2 percent of the respondents as current problem gamblers and 1.4 percent as current probable pathological gamblers (this information was not taken in the 1986 survey). The greatest distinction in the "current" and "lifetime" classifications are that current problem and pathological gamblers are just as likely to be women as men. Comparisons of the surveys showed significant increases in lottery and casino participation and significant decreases for bingo and dice games.

Gambling in Texas: 1995 Survey of Adult and Adolescent Gambling Behavior. Lynn S. Wallisch. Texas Commission on Alcohol and Drug Abuse, July, 1996. This study is a comparison of the 1992 and 1995 surveys on gambling behaviors. In 1995, 3 percent of adults in Texas were deemed problem or pathological gamblers as defined by SOGS. This is a slight increase over the 2.5 percent found in 1992. For adolescents, rates of problem gambling declined from 5 percent in 1992 to 2.3 percent in 1995. Additionally, the survey concluded that the introduction of the Texas State Lottery has had little effect on other forms of gambling. Lottery play has been added to prior gambling participation, rather than displacing other gambling activity.

The Social Costs of Gambling in Wisconsin. William N. Thompson, Ricardo Gazel and Dan Rickman. Wisconsin Policy Research Institute, Inc., Vol. 9(6), July 1996. The study showed a conservative estimate of 0.9 percent Wisconsin adults to have been serious problem gamblers at some point in their lives. A survey of 98 members of Gamblers Anonymous groups in Wisconsin was used to assess the costs attached to problem gambling. It was determined that the total social cost of serious problem gambling was approximately $307 million per year. This estimate is questionable due to the application of a lifetime prevalence rate to an annual cost estimate.

Problem Gambling Survey 1996, Final Report. Angus Reid Group, Inc. British Columbia Corporation, July 29, 1996. The results of this survey in comparison with the 1993 survey show no substantial increase in the prevalence of problem gambling in the Province. Participation measurements showed stability or decline for most categories, suggesting that the gaming market has reached a plateau or mature phase, where participation is increasingly centered among enthusiasts. More than any other activity, local casinos appear to be an increasingly likely focus for the individuals at risk for problem gambling. Problem gamblers tend to be male, of non-European ancestry with lower levels of education and household income than the general population.

The Prevalence of Problem and Pathological Gambling: A Critical Analysis. Michael B. Walker and Mark G. Dickerson. Journal of Gambling Studies, Vol. 12(2), p 233-249, Summer 1996. This article discusses the inaccuracy of prevalence studies. The authors' criticisms are: 1) prevalence studies should measure the "current" rate rather than "lifetime" experience, thus asking questions that begin with "have you ever" may inflate actual "current" prevalence rates; and 2) the accuracy of the South Oaks Gambling Screen in determining a pathological gambler. The article suggests that future research should comprise a detailed assessment of expenditures by product and develop profiles of the increasing level of risk of negative consequences of different levels of expenditure for each type of gambling.

Estimating the Prevalence of Adolescent Gambling Disorders: A Quantitative Synthesis and Guide Toward Standard Gambling Nomenclature. Howard J. Shaffer and Matthew N. Hall. Journal of Gambling Studies, Vol. 12(2), p 193-214, Summer 1996. This article discusses the variations in terminology and classifications used in past surveys (conducted to assess the prevalence of adolescent gambling), which make comparisons in prevalence rates difficult. Shaffer and Hall suggest a 5-level generic rating system (ranging from "Level 0: Non Gambling" to" Level 4: Impaired Gambler who Displays Willingness to Enter Treatment") for use in future studies. They contend that as the consistancy and clarity of gambling screens improve, researchers will be better able to identify those in need of intervention.

Final Report Prevalence Study Problem Gambling Wave 2. Baseline Market Research Ltd. New Brunswick Department of Finance, October, 1996. This study was conducted to update the 1992 survey of problem gambling prevalence in New Brunswick and to collect information for comparison with 1992's data. The results showed an increase of 5 percent in the number of people who had ever gambled from 1992. Lifetime problem gamblers declined from 6 percent in 1992 to 5 percent in 1996. Using the current measure, the 1996 study showed 4.1 percent classified as problem gamblers compared to 4.5 percent in 1992. The profile of the problem gambler remained unchanged and continues to most likely be male, single, under 44 years of age and unemployed with no more than a high school education. This study also assessed public awareness of problem gambling programs.

Psychological Characteristics of Volunteers in Studies on Gambling. Robert Ladouceur, Caroline Arsenault, Dominique DubJ, Mark H. Freeston, Christian Jacques. Journal of Gambling Studies, Vol.13(1), p69-84, Spring, 1997. The authors used a newspaper ad to solicit volunteers for a study of gambling and compared the results to a general problem gambling prevalence study in the Province of Quebec. The volunteer group had more than 24 times the rate of "probable pathological gambling" (as measured by the South Oaks Gambling Screen) than was found using a random sample. These results suggest the need for extreme caution when evaluating measures of problem gambling obtained by using a self-selected group or a survey with a low response rate. The probable pathological gamblers reported much higher rates of poor psychosocial functioning than did the rest of the population. Interestingly, the psychosocial functioning of those with SOGS scores of 3 or 4 (often labeled as "potential pathological gamblers") was statistically indistinguishable from that of nongamblers.

 

TREATMENT

The Treatment of Problem and Pathological Gambling in New Brunswick: Approaches to Establishing Services. Rachel A. Volberg. Gemini Research, December 28, 1992. The study found that 87 percent of the population has participated in gaming. Additionally, problem and probable pathological gamblers were more likely to be men, under the age of 35, unemployed and never married than the general population. They are also less likely to have graduated from high school and more likely to be earning less than $20,000 annually than the general population. The most likely gaming activities for problem and probable pathological gamblers in New Brunswick were card games and video gaming machines. The lifetime prevalence rate for problem and pathological gamblers was 6 percent, while the current rate was 4.5 percent. A two-phase approach to implement services for treatment was recommended in this report. Phase One would establish funding, develop a public educational campaign and establish prevention efforts in schools. It would also provide training in identifying the problem in clients for professionals in health related services. Phase Two would include providing training for treatment providers, establish a certification program for counselors and evaluate the effectiveness of these efforts.

Legislative Report of the Minnesota Compulsive Gambling Treatment Program. Minnesota Department of Human Services, January, 1993. The continued growth and popularity of the gambling industry during 1992 supports the need for a comprehensive program response that includes research, educational and prevention programs and direct treatment services. Currently, about 1.5 percent of adult Minnesotans (48,000) are considered "pathological gamblers" and some believe this will increase to at least 4 to 5 percent (120,000 to 150,000). This report details the compulsive gambling treatment program and contains summaries of five research projects that were done in various areas of the state.

Establishing Treatment Services for Pathological Gamblers in Manitoba. Rachel Volberg. Manitoba Lotteries Foundation, June 8, 1993. The prevalence study indicates that 1.3 percent of Manitoba adults are possible pathological gamblers. A two-phase approach to implementing services for treatment was recommended. Phase One would establish Funding, Organizational Responsibility, Public Education, Prevention, Diagnostic Training and Crisis Intervention. Phase Two would expand to include Treatment Training, Certification, Outpatient Treatment, Evaluation and ongoing Research.

Legislative Report of the Minnesota Compulsive Gambling Treatment Program. Minnesota Department of Human Services, January, 1994. Material in this report discusses the rapidly expanding need for a comprehensive program that includes provision of direct treatment services, a hotline, research, educational and prevention programs, measuring effectiveness and development standards. The basis for this need is the continued growth and popularity of the gambling industry, which now generates about $4.5 billion each year in Minnesota. Some estimates place the number of adult problem/compulsive gamblers at 48,000 and youth (between 15 and 18) at 1,100. Of particular interest are charts and graphs of hotline calls. The Type of Gambling Causing Problem for Caller chart identifies casino gambling as the primary reason (53 percent) for Hotline calls. Pull tabs were identified in 21 percent of the calls, the Lottery in 8 percent, card playing in 8 percent and bingo in 5 percent of the calls. The remaining 5 percent was split between dogs, horses, sports rec, other and sports book.

Public Policy Think Tank Report: A Blueprint for Responsible Public Policy in the Management of Compulsive Gambling. Elizabeth George and Stuart Sivertson. Minnesota Council on Compulsive Gambling Training Institute, Feb. 28, 1994. A wide variety of stakeholders in Minnesota gambling met to discuss compulsive gambling issues and to develop recommendations for the future. This report summarizes their ideas for the future development of compulsive gambling policy.

Problem and Compulsive Gambling Survey. Interprovincial Lottery Corporation, March, 1994. A letter and a survey questionnaire were sent to all NASPL members in the late fall of 1993; all but two of the forty-three jurisdictions replied. Lotteries were asked to identify both current and planned projects in the areas of treatment, education and prevention of problem and compulsive gambling. The survey found that although 21 of the 41 respondents do little or nothing to address the issue of problem and compulsive gambling, while 19 of the respondents have programs in place through designates (in which the lotteries are not directly involved). The Ohio Lottery is unique in that it gets directly involved through a Problem Gambling Advocate on staff. Other aspects surveyed were services and programs available, funding and studies.

Final Report. North American Think Tank on Youth Gambling Issues: A Blueprint for Responsible Public Policy in the Management of Compulsive Gambling. Howard J. Shaffer, Elizabeth M. George and Thomas Cummings. Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, Report (02.004), July, 1995. This report summarizes the recommendations developed by key leaders from throughout the United States and Canada in response to youth gambling issues.

Treatment Effectiveness of Six State-Supported Compulsive Gambling Treatment Programs in Minnesota. Randy Stinchfield and Ken Winters. Minnesota Department of Human Services, April, 1996. This is the fourth and final report of an ongoing evaluation of the effectiveness of gambling treatment programs. The study focuses on basic research questions like demographic characteristics and clinical history of gamblers as well as clients' evaluation of the treatment components. 1342 clients were recruited for the study, of which 944 were admitted to treatment. Among the 944 clients admitted to treatment, 658 (70 percent) completed treatment. The study found that the three most preferred gambling activities were cards (37 percent), slot machines (37 percent), and pull tabs (14 percent). The Lottery was rated by less than 1 percent as the game of choice, but was played about as frequently as the most preferred games. The 658 clients completing treatment exhibited significant improvements from pretreatment to post-treatment in gambling frequency, gambling problem severity and in areas of functioning.

Prevalence Studies and the Development of Services for Problem Gamblers and Their Families. Rachel A. Volberg, Mark G. Dickerson, Robert Ladouceur and Max W. Abbott. Journal of Gambling Studies, Vol.12(2), p215-231, Summer 1996. This article summarizes services available in Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United States for problem gamblers and their families. The services provided have largely been the response of governments to the prevalence studies performed within their jurisdictions.

Pathological Gambling in Louisiana: An Epidemiological Perspective. James R. Westphal and Jill Rush. Journal of the Louisiana State Medical Society. p353-358, August 1996. A review of telephone interview data using the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) on a random sample of 1,818 Louisiana adults indicated that 4.8 percent of adults over the age of 21 years have gambling disorders, compared to 14.4 percent of 18-to-21-year-olds. Pathological gamblers were found more likely to be male, less than 30 years old, non-white, unmarried and less likely to have graduated from high school than nonproblem gamblers.

Problem Gambling in New Brunswick; Review and Recommendations. Rachel A. Volberg. New Brunswick Department of Finance. October 1996. This report summarizes the findings of replication studies in North America and addresses the relevance of particular findings in New Brunswick to the continuing development of services for problem gamblers in the province. The report concludes with recommendations for the refinement of services for problem gamblers in New Brunswick, which include establishment of a secure funding source for these programs, education and treatment initiatives and the monitoring of problem gambling in the future.

The Application of Harm Minimization Principles to Gambling and Gaming in Western Democracies. Robert Quinlan. 10th International Conference on Gambling and Risk-Taking, Montreal. Northern Problem Gambling Service, Victoria, Australia. June 1997. The discussion places gambling firmly within the scope of addiction theory and focuses on harm minimization to society through the application of public health initiatives that have been used to combat tobacco, drugs and alcohol.

The Maroondah Assessment Profile for Problem Gambling (G-MAP): A New Direction in Problem Gambling Counseling. Tim Loughnan, Mark Pierce & Anastasia Sagris. 10th International Conference on Gambling and Risk-Taking, Montreal. BREAKEVEN - EASTERN Problem Gambling Service, Maroondah Social and Community Health Centre, Melbourne, Australia. June 1997. This paper describes the development and use of the Maroondah Assessment Profile for Problem Gambling (G-MAP), for the assessment and treatment of gambling problems. The G-MAP is designed to provide a map of relevant treatment issues to assist in the planning of individualized, cost effective treatment for people with gambling problems. Developed by three psychologists, the G-MAP is currently in a developmental phase and further research on its reliability and validity is underway.

Psychosocial Challenges of Responsible Gambling. Tiit Tammik. Sault College of Applied Arts and Technology, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, Canada. June 1997. A major part of this work lies in the premise that some people are "at risk" to develop cravings and addictions to activities that raise dopamine levels in their brain's "pleasure" centers. This "biosychosocial" perspective emphasizes the importance of interactions among all classes of relevant variables; genetic-biological, psychological and socio-cultural. Risk taking behaviour is an integral part of our human nature and a market driven, consumer culture is not likely to send out messages encouraging restraint. We are bombarded with messages urging us to consume and immediately indulge our every need. Novelty seeking behaviour, another aspect of our human nature, is cleverly exploited by gaming industry marketers, casino designers and designers of enticing gaming equipment and activities. Tammik implies that since gambling and therefore gambling addiction are not going to go away, society needs to encourage "safe gambling", perhaps in ways similar to how it encourages "safe sex" and responsible use of alcohol.

Problem Gambling and Experiential Avoidance: Experiential Avoidance as a Functional Process of Problem Gambling. Jeffrey Marotta & Duane Varble. 10th International Conference on Gambling and Risk-Taking, Montreal. University of Nevada, Reno, June, 1997. This article explores the theory (experiential avoidance) that "a proportion of problem gamblers follow a pathway from experiencing a critical life-event, to experiencing discomfort, to engaging in emotional avoidance as a coping mechanism, to discovering gambling as a vehicle for emotional avoidance, and finally, to developing problem gambling behaviors." The paper also discusses historical literature on compulsive gambling and treatments concluding that pathological gambling, in comparison with other addictions, has received very little attention.

Brief Manual for Use of the Diagnostic Interview for Gambling Severity (DIGS). Ken Winter, Sheila Specker, Randy Stinchfield. Department of Psychiatry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN. July, 1997. A detailed explanation of the Diagnostic Interview for Gambling Severity (DIGS), a tool used to make a DSM-IV diagnosis of pathological gambling (current and historical), as well as to assess other functioning including demographics, treatment history, mental health status and other impulse-related problems. This manual includes the DIGS's background, administration techniques and recommendations, a discussion of its psychometric results including reliability/validity and the worksheet used for scoring results attained from the DSM-IV: Compulsive Gambling Interview. The preliminary evaluation of the DIGS shows it to be an appropriate measure of pathological gambling.

Evaluation of the Minnesota State-Funded Compulsive Gambling Treatment Programs, Final Report. William Rhodes, Jon Norman, Stacia Langenbahn, Patricia Harmon and David Deal. Division of Mental Health, Minnesota Department of Human Services, St. Paul, MN. July 21, 1997. This report was prepared by Abt Associates, Inc. and concludes that compulsive gambling and its associated problems decrease with treatment. The evaluation showed that women were more likely than men to enter treatment. Adults with higher education, prior treatment experiences or high South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) scores were also more likely to seek and complete treatment than those with less education, no prior treatment experience or those testing with low SOGS scores.

 

YOUTH GAMBLING

Patterns and Characteristics of Adolescent Gambling. Ken Winters, Randy Stinchfield, J. Fulkerson. Journal of Gambling Studies, Vol 9, p371-386, 1993. This survey was conducted on 1,094 Minnesota youth (ages 15-18), a few months prior to the Minnesota Lottery start-up. The survey showed that abstinence from gambling is rare among Minnesota teenagers; nearly 90 percent have gambled at least once in their lifetime. By combining frequency of gambling and the presence of problem gambling signs and symptoms, three distinct groups were identified: Problem gamblers (6.3 percent of those surveyed), At-risk gamblers (19.9 percent) and No-problem gamblers (73.9 percent). Characteristics and psychosocial factors of the problem gamblers were identified.

Toward the Development of an Adolescent Gambling Problem Severity Scale. Ken Winters, Randy Stinchfield and Jayne Fulkerson. Journal of Gambling Studies, Vol. 9(1), p63-84, Spring 1993. This study describes the development and initial psychometric properties of an adolescent gambling problem severity measure adapted from a well-known adult measure, the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) (Lesieur & Blume, 1987). More than 1,100 older teenagers (ages 15 to 18) participated in this state-wide gambling survey. The study presents initial psychometric evidence for the SOGS-RA as a recent measure of gambling problem severity for older male adolescents.

Pathological Gambling Among Adolescents: Massachusetts Gambling Screen (MAGS). Howard J. Shaffer, Richard LaBrie, Kathleen M. Scanlan and Thomas N. Cummings. Journal of Gambling Studies, Vol. 10(4), p339-362, Winter 1994. This article describes the Massachusetts Gambling Screen (MAGS), which was developed to gauge non-pathological and pathological gambling during a 5-to 10-minute survey and to document the first psychometric translation of DSM-IV pathological gambling criteria into a set of survey questions. More than 850 Boston suburban high school students were surveyed. The sample was not randomly selected and was predominantly (95-97 percent) white. The survey showed that the prevalence of gambling related social and emotional problems was significantly greater for adolescent males than for females.

Gambling Among Primary School Students. Robert Ladouceur, Dominique Dube', Annie Bujold. Journal of Gambling Studies, Vol. 10(4), p363-370, Winter 1994. This study identifies the gambling behavior of Quebec youth. Some 1,320 French-speaking children from the 4th, 5th and 6th grades were surveyed to measure gambling participation. The results of the survey showed that 86 percent had wagered at one time or another and that 61 percent gamble with lotteries. Other forms of gambling were: bingo (55.5 percent), playing cards for money (53.3 percent), sports betting (47.9 percent), betting on specific events (32.3 percent), video games (28.6 percent), and games of skill (10.7 percent).

Estimating the Prevalence of Adolescent Gambling Disorders: A Quantitative Synthesis and Guide Toward Standard Gambling Nomenclature. Howard J. Shaffer and Matthew N. Hall. Division on Addictions, Harvard Medical School. July 22, 1994. This articles reviews nine studies conducted on adolescent gambling. Through comparison of the conceptual and methodological differences in the studies, this article used a meta-analytic approach to summarize prevalence estimates. This analysis revealed that within a 95 percent confidence interval, between 9.9 percent and 14.2 percent of adolescents are at risk of developing or returning to serious gambling problems. Similarly, between 4.4 percent and 7.4 percent of adolescents exhibit seriously adverse compulsive or pathological patterns of gambling activity.

Monitoring Gambling Among Minnesota Adolescents. Ken Winters, Randy Stinchfield and L. Kim. Journal of Gambling Studies, Vol. 11(2), p165-183, Summer, 1995. Pre-Lottery and post-Lottery gambling behavior is compared in a prospective sample of 532 Minnesota youths. Key findings related to the comparisons are: 1) No statistically significant changes were seen for total gambling frequency, rate of "regular" (weekly or daily) gambling, and rate of potential pathological gambling; 2) Significant decreases in gambling frequency occur for several non-legal games and two legal games (bingo and pull tabs); and 3) 28 percent of underage youths who play scratch tabs, pull tabs or the Lottery purchase these games themselves, while 73 percent use parents to access them.

1995 College Gambling Survey: University of Minnesota Twin Cities, University of Minnesota Duluth, and Moorhead State University. Ken C. Winters, Phyllis L. Bengtson, Randy Stinchfield and Derek Dorr. Minnesota Department of Human Services, April, 1996. The study was conducted to assess the relationship between gambling and drug use among college students. The variables most highly correlated with total gambling frequency for all three campuses were gender, licit (alcohol and tobacco) drug use, disposable income, illicit drug use and having parent(s) with a gambling problem.

Gambling and Problem Gambling Among Georgia Adolescents. Rachel A. Volberg. Georgia Department of Human Services, June 25, 1996. More than 1,000 Georgia adolescents aged 13 to 17 were interviewed by telephone to assess gambling and problem gambling among Georgia's youth. The study found that the proportion of Georgia adolescents who gamble was lower than among Georgia adults or among adolescents in other states. Adolescent gamblers were most likely to be older, male and have weekly incomes of $50 or more. Males, regular users of alcohol and drugs, and those whose parents gamble were most likely to experience gambling difficulties. Seventy percent of the adolescent problem gamblers have felt nervous about their gambling, 45 percent believed they have a gambling problem and 14 percent have desired or sought treatment for a gambling problem, suggesting a minimum of 1,200 adolescents who would access services if available.

Familial and Social Influences on Juvenile Gambling Behavior. Rina Gupta & Jeffrey Derevensky. National Conference on Compulsive Gambling, Chicago, Illinois. McGill University, Montreal. September 1996. A brief questionnaire was given to 477 Montreal students, aged 9 to 14, regarding their gambling activities. Eighty-one percent of students reported they had gambled, with 52 percent reporting weekly gambling activities. Gambling behavior increased significantly from 69 percent of fourth graders having gambled to 85 percent for sixth graders and 84 percent for eighth graders. Gambling at home was constant across grade levels, while gambling at friends' houses and at school increased with age. The paper associates the high levels of gambling among youth with society's acceptance of gambling and parental/communal influence. It also suggests that greater public awareness and education is needed on the potential problems analogous to juvenile gambling given the small, but increasing number of children having problems with gambling.

Gambling Behavior of Adolescent Gamblers. Richard Govoni, Nicholas Rupcich and G. Ron Frisch. Journal of Gambling Studies, Vol. 12(3), p305-317, Fall 1996. An adolescent version of the SOGS (SOGS-RA) was given to 965 high school students, aged 14 to 19 years, in Windsor, Ontario. Problem gambling levels were estimated at 8.1 percent of the sample. Males showed significantly higher rates of problem, and at-risk gambling behavior. Adolescents reporting excessive parental gambling were twice as likely to have problem or at risk gambling rates.

Prevalence of Gambling Among Minnesota Public School Students in 1992 and 1995. Randy Stinchfield, Nadav Cassuto, Ken Winters and William Latimer. University of Minnesota, Journal of Gambling Studies, Vol. 13(1), p25-48, Spring, 1997. The sample included 122,700 Minnesota public school students in the 6th, 9th and 12th grades. The study found that males gamble more often than females and 9th and 12th grade students gamble more often than 6th grade students. The most frequently played game by 6th grade boys is betting on sports teams, whereas 9th and 12th grade boys most often play cards. Although girls do not play any game very frequently, the game played most often by girls in all three grades is scratch tabs. The majority of students did not play any game on a weekly/daily rate and did not report any problems associated with gambling. From a statistical standpoint, it may be considered in the abnormal range, for girls to play two or more games at a weekly/daily rate, and for boys to play four or more games at a weekly/daily rate. A stepwise, multiple regression indicated that more antisocial behavior, being male, and the more alcohol use, were related to more frequent gambling.

Prevalence Estimates of Adolescent Gambling: A Comparison of the SOGS-RA, DSM-IV-J, and the G. A. 20 Questions. Jeffrey L. Derevensky & Rina Gupta. 10th International Conference on Gambling and Risk-Taking, Montreal. McGill University, Montreal, June, 1997. The gambling behaviors of 980 adolescents were examined using three measures, the SOGS-RA, DSM-IV-J, and the Gamblers Anonymous 20 (G. A. 20) Questions. The DSM-IV-J was found to be the most conservative measure identifying 3.4 percent of the population as problem/pathological gamblers while the SOGS-RA identified 5.3 percent and the G. A. 20 Questions identified six percent of adolescents as experiencing a serious gambling-related problem. Males continue to engage in gambling activities to a greater degree than females, and all three measures found more males exhibiting gambling related problems than females.

Gambling Activities of Young Australians: Developing a model of behavior. Susan Moore & Keis Ohtsuka. Victoria University, Australia. June, 1997. A survey of 1017 students (ages 14-25) was taken to ascertain their gambling attitudes and behaviors. The study results showed gambling to be an acceptable and frequent activity among Australian youth. Problem gambling was assessed as statistically rare at three percent. Gambling behaviors were found to be quite easily predicted by a rational decision-making model, although personality traits and emotions were shown to affect the prediction. In closing, this paper suggests that gambling is a moral and policy dilemma for societies, very similar to smoking and drinking.